yandex99
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April 12, 2023
On The Nature of Happiness
The human soul yearns for happiness, because happiness is the Ultimate Good. The good is that which is sought or desired, and the Ultimate Good is that which is sought or desired not as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, but as an end in itself, beyond which there’s no end. This is because, the good is divided into that which is sought or desired as a means to an end beyond itself, or for the sake of something else, and, that which is not desired or sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, but as an end in itself. That which is desired or sought as an end in itself, and not merely as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, is evidently nobler and superior than the good that is desired or sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else. Since the purpose or aim of every human activity is the attainment of happiness, which is desired as an end in itself, and not merely as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, whereas every other activity is sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of attaining happiness, therefore, happiness is the Ultimate Good.
But wherein lies happiness and what constitutes it. For some, such as the Epicureans, Happiness or the Ultimate Good, lies in the gratification of sensual desires through the attainment of corporeal pleasures, and the avoidance of sensual or bodily pain, where pleasure is the apprehension or perception of anything that is harmonious to the soul, and pain is the apprehension or perception of anything that is not in harmony with the soul. For these Hedonists, the good that is appropriate for the sense of sight lies in the perception of beautiful forms and faces, and the good that is appropriate for the sense of hearing lies in the apprehension of melodious sounds and tunes; similarly, the good that is appropriate for the sense of taste lies in the consumption of sumptuous food. For others, Happiness lies in the accumulation and possession of material goods, such as wealth and property.
Man is a composite of an irrational element, that is the material body, and a rational element, that is the immaterial human rational soul. Now the act and the resultant good that gratifies, comforts, or perfects the corporeal element of Man’s existence, namely, his material body, cannot be the act and the good that is proper to Man Qua Man. This is because man shares the material body in common with all materials things, and, therefore, the material body is not specific to Man, and does not distinguish him from the other material or corporeal things. Hence, the gratification of sensual desires through the pursuit and the attainment of corporeal pleasures, and the accumulation and possession of material wealth and property, do not constitute the good that is proper to Man Qua Man.
This is because in addition to the material body Man possesses an immaterial soul as well, that can be subdivided into three distinct faculties or souls, namely, the (a) vegetal, (b) the animal, and the (c) rational. The vegetal soul has three distinct faculties or powers, namely, (a) nutrition, (a[ii]) growth, and (a[iii]) reproduction, and Man shares all these faculties or powers in common with all the plants and animals. Hence, the faculties, acts, and the good, or the end, pertaining to the vegetal soul are not specific to Man, to the exclusion of all the other beings, and, thus, do not constitute the acts, and, the good, proper or specific to Man Qua Man. Similarly, the animal soul possesses two distinct faculties or powers, namely, (b) sensation and (b[ii]) volitional motion; the faculty of sensation can be further subdivided into (b[i(a)]) external, and (b[i(b)] internal; external sensation can be further subdivided into the five senses e.g. sight, hearing, taste, touch , and, smell; internal sensation can also be subdivided into five distinct faculties, namely, imagination, recollection, reflection, estimation, and the common sense. The faculty of motion within the animal soul can be subdivided into the (b[ii(a)]) irascible faculty, and the (b[ii(b)]) the faculty of concupiscence. Here as well, the faculties, acts, and the good, or the end, pertaining to the animal soul are not specific to Man, to the exclusion of all other animate beings, and, thus, do not constitute the good that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man. The rational soul or the faculty of reason, or the intellect, can be subdivided into the (c) theoretical intellect, and, the (c[ii]) practical intellect, and, it is precisely this rational soul or the faculty of reason that distinguishes Man from all the other beings, animate or inanimate. It is the ability to intellect and reason that sets Man above the beasts, with whom Man shares the faculties of sensation and motion. Therefore, the faculty that is specific or proper to Man Qua Man is the faculty of reason, or the intellect. Hence, the acts, and the good, or the end, that are proper or specific to Man Qua Man, are the ones that pertain to the rational soul, or the faculty of reason. Hence, the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man cannot be related to the vegetal, and, the animal, souls, and, must correspond to the rational faculty.
Now, since virtue is the activity of the soul that is in accordance with the dictates of reason, and, as discussed above, the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man must correspond to the rational soul, or the faculty of reason, it therefore follows that the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper to Man Qua Man lies in virtuous living, or a life of virtue. Virtue is the mean between the extremes of excess and deficiency, both of which are vices, where vice is any act that is not in accordance with the dictates of reason. The four cardinal virtues are wisdom or prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. Wisdom is the mean between the extremes of cleverness and ignorance, where the former is an excess, and the latter marks a deficiency. Temperance is the mean between profligacy and impotence, where the former is an excess and the latter a deficiency. Courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice, where the former is an excess and the latter a deficiency. Man acquires the virtue of justice once he has attained wisdom, temperance, and courage. Now each of the above-mentioned virtues corresponds or pertains to a faculty within the soul. Hence, wisdom pertains to the faculty of reason; temperance corresponds to the faculty of concupiscence; and courage is related to the irascible faculty. Therefore, the soul becomes virtuous by disciplining the irascible faculty, and the faculty of concupiscence, through the intellect. And as stated above, it is the virtuous who are happy in the true sense, even if assailed and tormented by adversity, pain, suffering, and the loss of wealth, honour, and family. The vicissitudes of fortune cannot diminish the light of virtue that renders luminous the souls of the virtuous. And since happiness consists in living virtuously, therefore, the virtuous can never be unhappy.
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On The Nature of Happiness
The human soul yearns for happiness, because happiness is the Ultimate Good. The good is that which is sought or desired, and the Ultimate Good is that which is sought or desired not as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, but as an end in itself, beyond which there’s no end. This is because, the good is divided into that which is sought or desired as a means to an end beyond itself, or for the sake of something else, and, that which is not desired or sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, but as an end in itself. That which is desired or sought as an end in itself, and not merely as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, is evidently nobler and superior than the good that is desired or sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else. Since the purpose or aim of every human activity is the attainment of happiness, which is desired as an end in itself, and not merely as a means to an end, or for the sake of something else, whereas every other activity is sought as a means to an end, or for the sake of attaining happiness, therefore, happiness is the Ultimate Good.
But wherein lies happiness and what constitutes it. For some, such as the Epicureans, Happiness or the Ultimate Good, lies in the gratification of sensual desires through the attainment of corporeal pleasures, and the avoidance of sensual or bodily pain, where pleasure is the apprehension or perception of anything that is harmonious to the soul, and pain is the apprehension or perception of anything that is not in harmony with the soul. For these Hedonists, the good that is appropriate for the sense of sight lies in the perception of beautiful forms and faces, and the good that is appropriate for the sense of hearing lies in the apprehension of melodious sounds and tunes; similarly, the good that is appropriate for the sense of taste lies in the consumption of sumptuous food. For others, Happiness lies in the accumulation and possession of material goods, such as wealth and property.
Man is a composite of an irrational element, that is the material body, and a rational element, that is the immaterial human rational soul. Now the act and the resultant good that gratifies, comforts, or perfects the corporeal element of Man’s existence, namely, his material body, cannot be the act and the good that is proper to Man Qua Man. This is because man shares the material body in common with all materials things, and, therefore, the material body is not specific to Man, and does not distinguish him from the other material or corporeal things. Hence, the gratification of sensual desires through the pursuit and the attainment of corporeal pleasures, and the accumulation and possession of material wealth and property, do not constitute the good that is proper to Man Qua Man.
This is because in addition to the material body Man possesses an immaterial soul as well, that can be subdivided into three distinct faculties or souls, namely, the (a) vegetal, (b) the animal, and the (c) rational. The vegetal soul has three distinct faculties or powers, namely, (a) nutrition, (a[ii]) growth, and (a[iii]) reproduction, and Man shares all these faculties or powers in common with all the plants and animals. Hence, the faculties, acts, and the good, or the end, pertaining to the vegetal soul are not specific to Man, to the exclusion of all the other beings, and, thus, do not constitute the acts, and, the good, proper or specific to Man Qua Man. Similarly, the animal soul possesses two distinct faculties or powers, namely, (b) sensation and (b[ii]) volitional motion; the faculty of sensation can be further subdivided into (b[i(a)]) external, and (b[i(b)] internal; external sensation can be further subdivided into the five senses e.g. sight, hearing, taste, touch , and, smell; internal sensation can also be subdivided into five distinct faculties, namely, imagination, recollection, reflection, estimation, and the common sense. The faculty of motion within the animal soul can be subdivided into the (b[ii(a)]) irascible faculty, and the (b[ii(b)]) the faculty of concupiscence. Here as well, the faculties, acts, and the good, or the end, pertaining to the animal soul are not specific to Man, to the exclusion of all other animate beings, and, thus, do not constitute the good that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man. The rational soul or the faculty of reason, or the intellect, can be subdivided into the (c) theoretical intellect, and, the (c[ii]) practical intellect, and, it is precisely this rational soul or the faculty of reason that distinguishes Man from all the other beings, animate or inanimate. It is the ability to intellect and reason that sets Man above the beasts, with whom Man shares the faculties of sensation and motion. Therefore, the faculty that is specific or proper to Man Qua Man is the faculty of reason, or the intellect. Hence, the acts, and the good, or the end, that are proper or specific to Man Qua Man, are the ones that pertain to the rational soul, or the faculty of reason. Hence, the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man cannot be related to the vegetal, and, the animal, souls, and, must correspond to the rational faculty.
Now, since virtue is the activity of the soul that is in accordance with the dictates of reason, and, as discussed above, the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper or specific to Man Qua Man must correspond to the rational soul, or the faculty of reason, it therefore follows that the Happiness or the Ultimate Good, that is proper to Man Qua Man lies in virtuous living, or a life of virtue. Virtue is the mean between the extremes of excess and deficiency, both of which are vices, where vice is any act that is not in accordance with the dictates of reason. The four cardinal virtues are wisdom or prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. Wisdom is the mean between the extremes of cleverness and ignorance, where the former is an excess, and the latter marks a deficiency. Temperance is the mean between profligacy and impotence, where the former is an excess and the latter a deficiency. Courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice, where the former is an excess and the latter a deficiency. Man acquires the virtue of justice once he has attained wisdom, temperance, and courage. Now each of the above-mentioned virtues corresponds or pertains to a faculty within the soul. Hence, wisdom pertains to the faculty of reason; temperance corresponds to the faculty of concupiscence; and courage is related to the irascible faculty. Therefore, the soul becomes virtuous by disciplining the irascible faculty, and the faculty of concupiscence, through the intellect. And as stated above, it is the virtuous who are happy in the true sense, even if assailed and tormented by adversity, pain, suffering, and the loss of wealth, honour, and family. The vicissitudes of fortune cannot diminish the light of virtue that renders luminous the souls of the virtuous. And since happiness consists in living virtuously, therefore, the virtuous can never be unhappy.
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