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[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]Coloration is directly related to the appearance of skin. Coloration also appears to be an important component of sexual selection in many species. Red coloration is associated with dominance in fish [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]100[/font]], birds [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]101[/font]] and non-human primates [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]102[/font],[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]103[/font]] and, consequently, is linked to attracting the opposite sex. Recent evidence has suggested that primate trichromatic vision is an adaptation to distinguish colour modulations in skin based on blood flow, allowing assessment of the state and/or mood of conspecifics [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]104[/font]]. It has been noted that primates with trichromatic vision are generally bare-faced [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]104[/font]] and that, at least in humans, facial flushing is associated with anger and confrontation [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]105[/font]].
In research on non-human primates, there has been much interest in colour. For example, experimental manipulation of colour shows that female rhesus macaques prefer images of redder male faces [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]103[/font]], while males prefer images of redder female hindquarters [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]106[/font]]. In mandrills, red facial colour is related to rank in males [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]102[/font]], and females sexually present more frequently to brighter males and also groom them more frequently [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]107[/font]].
Red coloration also has consequences for behaviour in other species. For example, in bird species, the addition of red to stimuli can increase social dominance [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]108[/font]].
In humans, it has been shown that wearing red in a variety of physically competitive sports is associated with an increased chance of winning over opponents [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]109[/font]]. This has been interpreted as natural associations of red with dominance being extended to artificially displayed red in the same way that artificial stimuli can exploit innate responses to natural stimuli [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]108[/font],[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]110[/font]]. One study pitting red versus blue shapes found that red shapes were seen as more aggressive, dominant and more likely to win in physical competitions [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]111[/font]]. Red does generally seem to have aversive effects on human behaviour. For example, when taking exams, individuals move their body away from tests with red covers more than they do from those with green or grey covers [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]112[/font]]. While these studies suggest the colour red may be seen as a threatening stimulus in humans, red also appears to enhance attraction in some instances. For example, women are seen as more attractive by men when presented with red backgrounds or with red clothing, relative to other colours [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]113[/font]]. This effect appears to be specific to attractiveness judgements; red colour does not influence judgements of other traits such as kindness or intelligence and does not influence women's attractiveness judgements of other women [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]113[/font]]. Further research has examined red coloration in faces and demonstrated a positive association with perceived health [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. The authors suggest that perception of healthy, oxygenated blood may drive associations between red and healthiness. Alongside redness, people also appear to think that skin yellowness is associated with healthy appearance in faces [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. Yellowness may advertise health via an association with diet, as carotenoids are associated with skin yellowness and are absorbed via the intake of fruit and vegetables [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. Taken together, these studies suggest that information on attractiveness and health is available from surface skin and that facial attractiveness is not dependent only on traits that display limited variation in adult life: skin texture and skin colour can vary over weeks or even days.[/font]
[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]Coloration is directly related to the appearance of skin. Coloration also appears to be an important component of sexual selection in many species. Red coloration is associated with dominance in fish [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]100[/font]], birds [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]101[/font]] and non-human primates [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]102[/font],[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]103[/font]] and, consequently, is linked to attracting the opposite sex. Recent evidence has suggested that primate trichromatic vision is an adaptation to distinguish colour modulations in skin based on blood flow, allowing assessment of the state and/or mood of conspecifics [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]104[/font]]. It has been noted that primates with trichromatic vision are generally bare-faced [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]104[/font]] and that, at least in humans, facial flushing is associated with anger and confrontation [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]105[/font]].
In research on non-human primates, there has been much interest in colour. For example, experimental manipulation of colour shows that female rhesus macaques prefer images of redder male faces [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]103[/font]], while males prefer images of redder female hindquarters [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]106[/font]]. In mandrills, red facial colour is related to rank in males [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]102[/font]], and females sexually present more frequently to brighter males and also groom them more frequently [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]107[/font]].
Red coloration also has consequences for behaviour in other species. For example, in bird species, the addition of red to stimuli can increase social dominance [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]108[/font]].
In humans, it has been shown that wearing red in a variety of physically competitive sports is associated with an increased chance of winning over opponents [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]109[/font]]. This has been interpreted as natural associations of red with dominance being extended to artificially displayed red in the same way that artificial stimuli can exploit innate responses to natural stimuli [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]108[/font],[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]110[/font]]. One study pitting red versus blue shapes found that red shapes were seen as more aggressive, dominant and more likely to win in physical competitions [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]111[/font]]. Red does generally seem to have aversive effects on human behaviour. For example, when taking exams, individuals move their body away from tests with red covers more than they do from those with green or grey covers [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]112[/font]]. While these studies suggest the colour red may be seen as a threatening stimulus in humans, red also appears to enhance attraction in some instances. For example, women are seen as more attractive by men when presented with red backgrounds or with red clothing, relative to other colours [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]113[/font]]. This effect appears to be specific to attractiveness judgements; red colour does not influence judgements of other traits such as kindness or intelligence and does not influence women's attractiveness judgements of other women [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]113[/font]]. Further research has examined red coloration in faces and demonstrated a positive association with perceived health [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. The authors suggest that perception of healthy, oxygenated blood may drive associations between red and healthiness. Alongside redness, people also appear to think that skin yellowness is associated with healthy appearance in faces [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. Yellowness may advertise health via an association with diet, as carotenoids are associated with skin yellowness and are absorbed via the intake of fruit and vegetables [[font=Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif]114[/font]]. Taken together, these studies suggest that information on attractiveness and health is available from surface skin and that facial attractiveness is not dependent only on traits that display limited variation in adult life: skin texture and skin colour can vary over weeks or even days.[/font]
